Discourse Markers

Discourse markers — also called linking words, sentence connectors, or text connectors — are the signposts that guide readers and listeners through your ideas. They tell the audience whether you are adding information, giving a result, introducing an example, changing topic, or wrapping up your argument.

Mastering discourse markers is essential for B1–B2 writing and speaking — they are the difference between a list of sentences and a well-organised paragraph. These linking words are also heavily tested in Cambridge B1 Preliminary and B2 First exams.

There are 6 functions and 2 registers to learn:

Function	What it does	Key markers
Addition	Adds more information	furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, what's more
Result	Shows consequence	therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, hence
Purpose	Explains the goal	in order to, so as to, so that, in case
Sequencing	Orders ideas	firstly, secondly, next, then, finally
Exemplification	Gives examples	for example, for instance, such as, namely
Summarising	Wraps up	in conclusion, to sum up, all in all, overall

Every function has formal and informal variants. Knowing which register to use — furthermore in an essay vs also in conversation — is what separates a B1 learner from a confident B2 speaker.

Note: Contrast and concession markers (however, nevertheless, although, despite) are covered in Contrast & Concession and Conjunctions.

Addition, Result & Purpose Markers

Addition Markers: Adding More Information

Use addition markers to introduce extra information that supports or extends the previous point. The new information is not caused by the first point — it simply adds to it.

Marker	Register	Position	Example
furthermore	Formal	Start of sentence	The hotel is centrally located. Furthermore, it offers free parking.
moreover	Formal	Start of sentence	The company has expanded its product range. Moreover, it has opened three new stores.
in addition	Neutral–formal	Start of sentence	She speaks French and German. In addition, she has a basic knowledge of Japanese.
besides	Neutral	Start of sentence	The food was terrible. Besides, the service was extremely slow.
what's more	Informal	Start of sentence	The hotel room was tiny. What's more, the Wi-Fi didn't work.
also	Neutral	Mid-sentence	The museum is free to enter. It also offers guided tours at a low price.

"In addition to" + noun/-ing works as a preposition (not a sentence connector):

In addition to his teaching skills, Professor Lee is also an accomplished researcher.
In addition to working full-time, she volunteers at a local charity.

Result Markers: Showing Consequence

Use result markers to show that the second idea is a logical consequence of the first. The first point causes or leads to the second.

Marker	Register	Example
therefore	Formal	The hotel was fully booked. Therefore, we had to find alternative accommodation.
consequently	Formal	He had not studied. Consequently, he failed the exam.
as a result	Neutral–formal	The road was blocked by flooding. As a result, all traffic was diverted.
thus	Formal/academic	The company lost several clients. Thus, it was forced to make redundancies.
hence	Formal/academic	The data is incomplete. Hence, the conclusions must be treated with caution.
accordingly	Formal	The evidence supported the defendant. Accordingly, the jury found him not guilty.
so	Informal	The train was cancelled. So, we took a bus instead.

The Addition vs Result Trap

⚠️ Error Zone #1 — This is the most common discourse marker mistake.

Students confuse addition and result because both introduce a second sentence. The key test:

Did the first fact CAUSE the second?

Yes → Result marker (therefore, consequently, as a result)

No → Addition marker (furthermore, moreover, in addition)

Addition (not caused) Result (caused)

✅ The food was terrible. What's more, the service was slow. Prices have risen. As a result, families are struggling.

❌ The food was terrible. ~~Therefore~~, the service was slow. Prices have risen. ~~In addition~~, families are struggling.

Bad food does not cause slow service — they are separate complaints (addition). Rising prices do cause families to struggle (result).

	Addition (not caused)	Result (caused)
✅	The food was terrible. What's more, the service was slow.	Prices have risen. As a result, families are struggling.
❌	The food was terrible. ~~Therefore~~, the service was slow.	Prices have risen. ~~In addition~~, families are struggling.

Purpose Markers: Explaining the Goal

Purpose markers explain why someone did something — what they wanted to achieve.

Marker	Grammar	Example
in order to + infinitive	Formal purpose	He left early in order to catch the last train.
so as to + infinitive	Formal purpose	We should leave now so as to avoid the traffic.
so that + subject + verb	Purpose clause	She turned down the volume so that the baby wouldn't wake up.
in case + subject + verb	Precaution	Take an umbrella in case it rains.

The "In Case" vs "So That" Trap

⚠️ Error Zone #2 — These two look similar but mean different things.

Meaning Logic Example

so that Purpose — to make something happen (or prevent it) You WANT this outcome She saved money so that she could afford a holiday.

in case Precaution — because something MIGHT happen You're PREPARING for a possibility Take an umbrella in case it rains.

Quick test:

So that = "I'm doing X to achieve Y"

In case = "I'm doing X because Y might happen"

I wrote down the address in case I forgot it. (= because I might forget — precaution)

I wrote it clearly so that everyone could read it. (= to make it readable — purpose)

	Meaning	Logic	Example
so that	Purpose — to make something happen (or prevent it)	You WANT this outcome	She saved money so that she could afford a holiday.
in case	Precaution — because something MIGHT happen	You're PREPARING for a possibility	Take an umbrella in case it rains.

👉 Practice Addition, Result & Purpose Markers →

Sequencing, Exemplification & Summarising Markers

Sequencing Markers: Ordering Ideas

Use sequencing markers to organise points in a logical order — in essays, presentations, instructions, or arguments.

Position	Markers	Example
Opening	firstly, first of all, to begin with	Firstly, the cost is far too high.
Continuing	secondly, thirdly, next, then, in addition	Secondly, it would take too long to implement.
Referring back	previously, as mentioned earlier	Previously, we looked at the causes of climate change.
Closing	finally, lastly, last of all	Finally, pour the batter into the tin and bake for 30 minutes.

For instructions and processes, use first / next / then / finally:

First, preheat the oven to 180°C.
Next, mix the flour and sugar in a large bowl.
Then, add the eggs and mix well.
Finally, pour the batter into the tin and bake for 30 minutes.

For arguments and essays, use firstly / secondly / finally:

Firstly, the plan is too expensive.
Secondly, it would take too long.
Finally, there is no public support for it.

Exemplification Markers: Giving Examples

Marker	Meaning	Example
for example	Introduces one or more examples	The town has a lot to offer. For example, the old castle attracts tourists.
for instance	Same as "for example" (interchangeable)	There are many ways to reduce stress — for instance, going for a walk.
such as	Introduces examples within a sentence	The city has excellent transport, such as buses, trams, and an underground.
namely	Introduces the COMPLETE list	The exam covers four skills, namely reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
in particular	Highlights specific notable examples	The town is famous for its architecture — in particular, the medieval cathedral.

The "Namely" vs "Such As" Trap

⚠️ Error Zone #3 — Complete list or partial examples?

List type Example

namely Complete — every item is named The report identified three problems, namely X, Y, and Z.

such as / for example Partial — just some examples There are many ways to reduce stress, such as walking or meditating.

If the sentence says "three problems" and you list exactly three, use namely. If it says "many ways" and you only give a few, use such as or for example.

	List type	Example
namely	Complete — every item is named	The report identified three problems, namely X, Y, and Z.
such as / for example	Partial — just some examples	There are many ways to reduce stress, such as walking or meditating.

Summarising & Reformulation Markers

Function	Markers	Example
Concluding	in conclusion, to sum up, to conclude	In conclusion, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
General assessment	all in all, overall, on the whole	All in all, the new policy has been a success.
Reformulating	in other words, that is (to say), in essence	The contract is, in essence, a guarantee of mutual obligations.
Simplifying	to put it simply, in short	In short, we need more funding.

We discussed the budget, the timeline, and the staffing plan. To sum up, I think we have covered all the key points.
Overall, the results show that regular exercise improves both physical and mental health.
The festival features live music, dance, and food stalls. In other words, it is a celebration of cultural diversity.

👉 Practice Sequencing, Exemplification & Summarising →

Mixed Markers, Register & Attitude

At B2 level, you need to choose between formal and informal variants and recognise attitude markers that express the speaker's opinion.

Formal vs Informal Register

Every discourse marker function has formal and informal options. Using the right register is essential for essays, emails, and exams.

Function	Formal (essays, reports)	Informal (speech, emails)
Addition	furthermore, moreover, in addition	also, what's more, besides
Result	therefore, consequently, thus, hence	so, as a result
Contrast	nevertheless, nonetheless	still, anyway, though
Exemplification	for instance, namely	like, say
Summarising	in conclusion, to sum up	basically, so overall
Purpose	in order to, so as to	to (infinitive)

Formal essay: The data supports our hypothesis. Nevertheless, further research is needed.
Casual speech: The data looks good. Still, we need more research.
Formal report: The train was cancelled. Consequently, we took a bus.
Casual speech: The train was cancelled. So, we took a bus.

Attitude Markers

Attitude markers show what the speaker thinks or feels about the information. They add a personal perspective.

Marker	Speaker's attitude	Example
apparently	Reporting unconfirmed information	Apparently, the suspect was seen near the crime scene.
obviously / clearly	The fact is self-evident	Clearly, no one could have predicted the outcome.
unfortunately	Negative judgement	The CEO made promises. Unfortunately, none were kept.
surprisingly	Unexpected information	Surprisingly, the new policy has been well received.
admittedly	Conceding a point	Admittedly, the plan has some weaknesses.

Additional B2 Markers

Marker	Function	Example
at the same time	Two things happening together or in parallel	The government increased taxes. At the same time, it cut spending.
even so	Concession (= despite that)	The project faced setbacks. Even so, the team remains optimistic.
apart from	Addition (= in addition to) + noun	Apart from cost, there is the question of feasibility.
on the whole	General assessment (= generally)	This theory is, on the whole, widely accepted.
more specifically / to be specific	Narrowing down	The study has limitations. To be specific, the sample was small.
in each case	Referring to repeated situations	The experiment was repeated three times. In each case, the results were consistent.

👉 Practice Mixed Discourse Markers →

Common Mistakes to Avoid

❌ Incorrect	✅ Correct	Explanation
The room was small. Therefore, the Wi-Fi didn't work.	The room was small. What's more, the Wi-Fi didn't work.	A small room doesn't CAUSE broken Wi-Fi. These are separate complaints — use addition, not result.
Take an umbrella so that it rains.	Take an umbrella in case it rains.	You don't WANT it to rain. In case = precaution (it might happen). So that = purpose (you want this outcome).
There are many ways to relax, namely walking and reading.	There are many ways to relax, such as walking and reading.	"Many ways" implies more than two — you're giving examples, not a complete list. Use such as for partial examples.
The data supports our hypothesis. Furthermore, more research is needed.	The data supports our hypothesis. Nevertheless, more research is needed.	"More research is needed" contrasts with (doesn't add to) "the data supports us." Use a contrast marker.
He left early in case catch the train.	He left early in order to catch the train.	In case needs a clause (subject + verb). For purpose + infinitive, use in order to or so as to.
Firstly, the cost is too high. Moreover, it would take too long. In conclusion, there is no support for it.	Firstly, the cost is too high. Secondly, it would take too long. Finally, there is no support for it.	In a numbered argument, keep the sequence consistent: firstly → secondly → finally. Don't switch to addition or summarising mid-list.

Quick Summary